References Providing Research Conclusions

About Physical Punishment of Children

1. Spanking stops misbehavior, but no more effectively than other firm measures.
   (Day & Roberts, 1983; Straus, 1994; Straus & Pitzer-- Goodhue Co.; LaVoie, 1974; Larzelere, 1994; Crozier & Katz, 1979; Bongiovanni, 1979; Patterson, 1972; Webster-Stratton et al., 1988, 1990)
   
   
2. Can easily escalate to child abuse
   (Graziano etal, 1995, 1996; Kadushin & Martin, 1981; Marion, 1982; Smith, 1975; Straus, 1994; Wolfe, 1987; Wolfe & Mosk, 1983)
   
   
3. Can not teach what to do (new or alternative behavior)
   (Bongiovani, 1979; Coloroso, 1994)
   
   
4. Does not deter child from repeating same behavior (any better than other tactics)
   (Straus & Pitzer--Goodhue Co)
   
   
5. Hinders rather than improves general compliance/obedience (especially when child is not in presence of the punisher)
   (Len, 1987; Straus, 1991a; Straus, 1991b; Kuczynski, 1983; Kuczynski, 1984; Embree, date ?? ; Olweus, 1980; Power & Chapieski, 1986; Straus, Sugarman, & Giles-Sims, 1997; Toner, 1986; Tricket & Kuczynski, 1990)
   
   
6. Undermines reasoning, explanation, and other forms of "parental induction" because child cannot learn, reason, or problem-solve well while experiencing threat, pain, fear, or anger
   (Stress literature--esp Selye, 1976; recent medical literature on inability of "threatened" patients to "hear" doctors' explanations or recommendations)
   
   
7. Is inconsistent with non-violent precepts
   (Parental modeling)
   
   
8. Increases probability of aggressive acting-out — even when used infrequently and/or in small doses.
   (Aggarwal & Verma, 1987; Becker, Peterson, Luria, Shoemaker, & Hellmer, 1962; Berkowitz, 1993; Coie & Dodge, 1997; Eron, Huesman, & Zelli, 1991; Eron, Lefkowitz, & Walder, 1971; Eron, Walder, Lefkowitz, & Toigo, 1963; Floyd, 1985; Gray, 1988; Hotaling, Straus, & Lincoln, 1990; Kandel, 1992; Larzelere, 1986; Majonis, 1991; Maurer, 1974; Miedzian, 1991; Nagaraja, 1984; Olweus, 1980; Sears, Maccoby, & Levin, 1957; Steinmetz, 1979; Strassberg et al, 1994; Straus, 1991; Straus & Smith, 1990; Straus & Yodanis, 1996; White & Straus, 1981)
   
   
9. Chips away at bond of affection between parent and child; induces resentment and fear.
   (Carlson, 1986; Straus, 1994; Rohner, Kean, & Cournoyer, 1991; Redd, Morris, & Martin, 1975; Hirschi ?, 1969; Graziano et al, 1996; Straus--Goodhue)
   
   
10. Children don't learn to take responsibility for their own behavior ("external attribution")
    (Graziano & Kunce, 1992; Nisan, 1992; Handbook on Child Psychology, 1997; body of literature on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation)
    
    
11. Hinders development of empathy and compassion
    (Eisenberg & McNally, 1993; Hoffman, 1963; Kestenbaum, Farber, & Sroufe, 1989; Koestner, Franz, & Weinberger, 1990; Sears, Maccoby, & Levin, 1957)
    
    
12. Is a risk factor (increases the probability) for a number of undesirable social and psychological circumstances:
    
    1. Delinquent behavior
       (Goode, 1971; Gray, 1988; Straus, 1991; Straus, 1994; Widom, 1989a; Widom, 1989b)
       
       
    2. Drug use during adolescence
       (Eckenrode, Laird, & Doris, 1993; Gray, 1988; Sternberg, et al, 1993; Straus, 1991)
       
       
    3. Criminal behavior during adulthood
       (McCord, 1988; Widom, 1989b)
       
       
    4. Abusive parenting
       (Kaufman & Zigler, 1989)
       
       
    5. Low self-concept, emotional problems, anxiety, depression, feelings of helplessness or worthlessness.
       (Cicchetti & Carlson, 1989; Hyman & Wise, 1979; Maurer, 1974; Straus, 1991; Wolfe, 1987; Aber, Allen, Carlson, & Cicchetti, 1989; Hughes, 1988; Kazdin, Moser, Colbus, & Bell, 1985; Sternberg e al, 1993; Timberlake, 1981; Rohner, Kean, and Cournoyer, 1991; Larzelere et al, 1989)
       
       
    6. Type-A personalities and behavioral tendencies
       (McCranie & Simpson, 1986)
       
       
    7. Lessened educational, occupational, and economic achievement
       (Straus, 1994; B. Hyman, 1993; Straus & Mathur, 19??)
       
       
    
    
    
13. Can become an "easy-way out" for youngsters
    (Coloroso, 1994)
    
    
14. Impossible once they become bigger and stronger
    Shouldn't be used after — age6, Larzelere, 1996; age 10, dobson, 1992; puberty, Baumrind, 1996
    
    

Usually parents spank because they are angry (and somewhat out of control) and/or don't know or can't think of other ways to discipline. (Graziano et al, 1995; Graziano & Namaste, 1990; Kelley, Grace, & Elliott, 1990; Larzelere et al, 1989; Stattin et al, 1995)

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